Most texts are divided into chapters. Those chapters are not individual entities; they are connected by a common theme. To clarify this for both the author and the reader, signposts are required. Use the first and last paragraphs of every chapter to do this.

Start with an overview of the information that will be discussed. There is no need to use a separate section for this. Just start right after the chapter title, so before the first section. Round off each chapter with a paragraph outlining the most important conclusions arising from that chapter and a preview of the next chapter. A good introductory or closing paragraph also clarifies to the reader the relationship between the different subtopics.

The body of a chapter is often divided into sections. Splitting a chapter into smaller parts makes the text easier to follow and the reader will find the information they are looking for much quicker.

Sections are subdivided into paragraphs. The rule of thumb is that each subtopic should have its own paragraph. Usually, the first sentence is the key statement. The other sentences relate to that statement.

A single sentence rarely constitutes a paragraph and a paragraph of more than ten lines is a bit much. When starting a new paragraph, indent the first line (tab key). A group of paragraphs is preceded by a section title, a subheading or a blank line.

Use signal words to establish clear links between paragraphs.

Think of words like ‘firstly’ or ‘in addition’ when you are working through a list. Use ‘in contrast to’ if you want to compare a number of issues or ‘on the other hand’ if you want to mention a pro as well as a con (or vice versa).

 

Sometimes you come across interesting information that does not entirely fit in with the common theme running through your text. A textbox is a good solution in such situations. In a textbox you can include a short piece of text that the reader does not necessarily have to read in order to understand the main text. You should, however, refer to the textbox in the main text. This way, the link between the main text and the textbox is clear for the reader. Each textbox should have a number and a title.

‘Extra information’ could be a case study to illustrate the essential idea you discuss in the main text or an overview of conclusions recently published by a research committee. In a chapter about different types of spatial segregation, for example, you could include a textbox about Chinatowns.

It goes without saying that every chapter and section should have a title. You can also use subheadings, for example, if it makes it easier for readers to find their way through a section. You do not number subheadings.

There are a number of general rules for writing titles and headings:

• Titles and headings never end with a full stop.
• The hierarchy between chapter title, section title and subheading should be obvious from the layout. Use a different font size and normal type or italics.
• Avoid using meaningless titles and headings. An example: in a text about the National Ecological Network, it is better to use the subheading ‘Resistance from the agricultural sector’ rather than ‘Negative reactions’. Or, in a text about gentrification in Berlin: ‘Attractive residential location for the YUP’ instead of ‘Explanations’. The headings mentioned first give the reader a much clearer picture of what is to come. If you combine such headings, the reader has a good idea of the main themes discussed in the text.
• Chapter titles, section titles and subheadings must never be the same. This way, you ensure that the hierarchy is maintained.
• Never refer to a title or heading.